thesis proposal

Minggu, 05 April 2009

blue print motivasi

BLUE PRINT OF MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Construct Aspects Indicator
Number of Items
Motivation is some kind of rewards (and perhaps punishments), reinforcements, internal drives, hierarchy of needs, and self-control which push students to do thing in order to achieve the goals of learning English. 1. Reward and punishments a. Money: Pursue the goals in order to make money

b. Prizes: Pursue the goals in order to receive prize

c. Grades: Pursue the goals in order to receive grades

d. Positive feedback: Pursue the goals in order to receive positive feedback

e. Punishment: Initiated solely to avoid the punishments
2. Reinforcement a. Certificate: Pursue the goals in order to receive certificate

b. Scholarship: Pursue the goals in order to receive scholarship
c.
d. Financial independence: Pursue the goals in order to receive financial independence

e. Careers: Pursue the goals in order to receive the successful in careers
f. Happiness: Pursue the goals in order to receive the happiness.

3. Internal Drives a. Exploration: The need for exploration, the need for probing unknown
b. Manipulation: The need for manipulation, for operating on the environment and causing change.
c. Activity: The need for activity, for movement and exercise both mental and physical

d. Stimulation: Emotional or physical stimulation to answer the questions.
e. Knowledge: The need to know and
understand

f. Ego enhancement: The need for ego enhancement, for the self to be known and to be accepted and approved of by other

chapter IV

CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. The Setting and Time of Research
This experimental research is carried out at SMP Negeri 2 Tanjunganom, Nganjuk that is located on Desa Malangsari, Tanjunganom district, Nganjuk Regency, phone number: (0358) 771330. It was built in 1985. Although it is near the main street of Warujayeng to Nganjuk city, it has nice atmosphere to learn because it is far away from a noisy place. It is large and surrounded by the rice field.
To sustain and aid the learning activities, SMP Negeri 2 Tanjunganom has complete facilities that support the teaching and learning activities, such as library, biology laboratory, physics laboratory, and computer laboratory. In addition, there are several extracurricular activities provided, those are: English club, music, dance, sports, Javaness music (gamelan), traditional drama (ketoprak) and reading holy Qur’an.
There are twenty five classes in SMPN 2 Tanjunganom. They consist of nine classes for the first year, eight classes for the second year, and eight classes for the third years. There are about 40 learners for each. Most of the learners’ parents are farmers because they live in rural area. Consequently, they have low motivation. They think that it is enough to study up to Junior High School, as a result only some of them continue their study to Senior High School. It can be seen from the data that just about 73% of learners continue to SMA in 2007/2008.
In this case, this experimental research is conducted for eight months from July 2008 up to February 2009. The schedules are as follows:
NO DESCRIPTION TIME
July
‘08 Oct
‘08 Nov
‘08 Des
‘08 Jan
‘09 Feb
‘09
1. Designing Research Proposal √
2. Seminar on Research Proposal √
3. Developing Research Instrument √
4. Giving Experiment and Collecting Data √
5. Writing Research Report √ √
6. Collecting Research Report √ √

B. Research Method
The research method that is used in this study is experimental research. Frankel and Wallen (1997: 97) state that the basic concept of experimental research is something that is tried to determine its effect. It is one of the most powerful research methodologies, because it is the best way to establish cause – and – effect relationship between variables. There are two variable in this research. They are independent and dependent variable. Independent variables are jigsaw in cooperative learning, static drills on audio-lingual method, and motivation. The dependent variable is speaking ability.
To conduct an experimental research, the researcher planed experimental design. Fraenkel and Wallen (1997: 97) state that an experimental design is a preconceived plan for conducting an experiment. In this case the research had used factorial design in which all levels of each independent variable are taken in combination with the levels of the other independent variable. Frankel and Wallen (1997: 112) state that the design of this research requires a minimum of two independent, with at least two levels of each variable. The minimum design is called a two by two (2 X 2) factorial design. They are two simple effects and two main effects. The simple effects are high motivation and low motivation, where as the main effects are jigsaw in cooperative learning and static drills on audio-lingual method. The diagram of factorial design is as follows:
Table 3.1: factorial design
Main effect

Simple effect Jigsaw technique Static drills
High Motivation
Low Motivation
Total

C. Population, Sample, and Sampling
1. Population
Fraenkel and Wallen (1993: 79) state that a population is the group to which the results of the study are intended to apply. Kountour in Azib (2008: 6) states population is the large group about which the generalization is made. It is defined as all members of any well-define class of people, events, or objects. In this case this research took the first year of SMPN 2 Tanjunganom which consists of nine classes. There are about 40 learners for each. The first year students are beginners, because some of them are 12 years old. According to Shin in Nurkamto (2008: 1) states that young learners are 7 years up to 12 years.
2. Sample
A sample is the small group that is observed in research. Since the purpose of drawing a sample from a population is to obtain information concerning that population. It is extremely important that the individuals included in a sample must be representative. Kontour an Azib (2007: 7) states that sample is a part of population; it must be representative of all population.
In this case the research took two classes as a sample. They are VII-8 and VII-9 where there are about 40 learners for each. This research took class VII-8 as an experimental group and VII-9 as a control group. The experimental group is taught by using jigsaw in cooperative learning and the control group is taught by using static drills in audio-lingual method.
To decide the samples that have high and low motivation, the researcher gave questionnaire of motivation to the experimental group and control group. The result of it is used as consideration to decide sample in this research in which 25% of learners that have high motivation and 25% of learners who have low motivation are as a sample. In experimental group and control group in which there are 40 learners for each, so 25% of each is 10 learners.
3. Sampling
The technique used to get the sample is called sampling. Various sampling procedures are available to researcher for using in the selection of a subgroup of a population that represented that population well and avoided bias. The researcher used cluster random sampling because to take subjects in naturally occurring group or cluster. Fraenkel and Wallen (1997: 279) state cluster sampling involves the random selection of clusters from the larger population of clusters. All the population members of a selected cluster are included in the sample. The research took two classes of seven grades where one class as experimental group and the other as control group.
D. Techniques of Collecting the Data
1. Giving Questionnaire of motivation
Fraenkel and Wallen (1993: 79) say that questionnaire is an instrument that can be used for collecting data in a research. In a questionnaire, the subjects respond to the questions by writing or, more commonly, filling an answer sheet. They also state that it is very helpful for the teacher in conducting research because it can give to large number of people at the same time. According to Burns (1999: 129) questionnaire is easier and less time consuming to administer. Questionnaire was used in this research to know the learners’ motivation in teaching speaking. It also was used to classify the learners who have high and low motivation. The researcher used 50 statements in the questionnaires in the study.
The Indonesia version of questionnaire was presented in appendix …. The four answers were listed according to the order of frequency: (1) always (4 points), (2) often (3 points), (3) sometimes (2 points), and (4) never (1 points). Most of the questions were asked from the positive point of view (e.g. I like learning English), and such question would score 4 points, 3 points, 2 points, 1 point corresponding to the answers of always, often, sometimes, and never. However, these were some questions asked from the negative points of view (e.g. I hate English) and questions like these would score 1, 2, 3, 4 corresponding to the answers of always, often, sometimes, never.
2. Post-test
The researcher used test to measure the students’ achievement in speaking. He gave post-test to experimental group and the control group; it was given to know gained score in speaking ability after they were taught by using jigsaw and the control group by using static drills in audio-lingual method. The aim is which one is better between jigsaw in cooperative learning and audio-lingual method on static drills to beginner viewed from motivation.
E. Technique of Analyzing Data
The data collected for analysis to examine the effects of jigsaw in cooperative learning in this study included: the result of the motivational questionnaire and the score of the oral task in speaking test.
1. The result of the motivational questionnaire.
a. The research used continuum score to analyze internal validity and reliability the items of the motivational questionnaire as follows:

b. The research used frequency distribution to analyze the score of motivational questionnaire.
2. The research will use ANOVA (2 x 2) to analyze the data as follows:
a. The total sum of squares:
= -
b. The sum of squares between groups:
= +
c. The sum of squares within groups:

d. The between-columns sum of squares:
+
e. The between-rows sum of squares:
+
f. The sum-of-squares interaction:

g. The number of degrees of freedom associated with each source of variation:
df for between-columns sum squares = C – 1 = 2 – 1 = 1
df for between-rows sum squares = R – 1 = 2 – 1 = 1
df for interaction = (C – 1) (R – 1) = 1 X 1 = 1
df for between-groups sum of squares = G – 1 = 4 – 1 = 3
df for within-groups sum of squares = ∑(n – 1) = 4 +4 + 4 + 4 = 16
df for total sum of squares = N – 1 = 20 – 1 = 19
where:
C = the number of columns
R = the number of rows
G = the number of groups
n = the number of subjects in one group
N = the number of subjects in all groups

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brown, Douglas. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, San Francisco State University press.

Fraenkel, Jak R and Wallen, Norman E, (1997). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education.

Larsen, Diane and Freeman, (1985). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University press.

Muhamad Nur, (2005). Pembelajaran Koopratif. Lembaga Penjamin Mutu Pendidikan Jawa Timur.

Tuckman, Bruce W, (1972). Conducting Educational Research. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.

Richards and Rodgers, (2001). Techniques and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University press.

.

chapter III

chapter II

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEWING

In this chapter, the researcher describes the concepts dealing with the research, those are general concept of speaking, the general concepts of jigsaw in cooperative learning, the general concepts of audio-lingual method on static drills, and the general concept of low motivation and high motivation, beginner as well, all of them as the basic description in understanding the concepts are used in this research.
A. General Concepts of Speaking
1. The Definition of Speaking.
According to Cook in Nunan (2000: 164), spoken language is happening in time, produced and processed on line. It is not going back and changing, or structuring the words as in writing. It is often no time to pause and think, while speakers are talking or listening, they cannot stand back and view the discourse in spatial or diagrammatic terms. Brown (2001: 257) states that speaking is literally defined as to say things, express thought aloud, and use the voice. Spoken language and speaking are similar in meaning that how people use the voice loudly that occurs in time cannot go back and change, and it is produced and processed on line. According to Oxford, speaking is to know and be able to use a language orally (1996: 256). According to those statements, it can be inferred that speaking is to be able to use a language orally or say things that cannot go back and change.

2. Teaching Oral Communication Issues
The practical consideration that provides some perspective is the current issues in teaching oral communication. Brown (2001: 276) states that the current issues are as follows:
a. Conversational Discourse
A conversation is the benchmark on successful language acquisition that gives the demonstration of an ability to accomplish pragmatic goals through interactive discourse with other speakers of the language. Richards in Brown (2001: 267) states that “the conversation class is something of an enigma in language teaching”. Based on the statement, it can be inferred that conversation is mysterious and seems impossible to understand completely. Because of an enigma in language teaching, learning a language should be intended by designing goals and technique well.
Brown (2001: 268) states that, “goals and techniques for teaching conversation are extremely diverse, depending on the students, teacher, and overall context of the class”. Conversation classes have ranged from quasi-communicative drilling to free, open, and sometimes agenda-less discussion among students. The teachers should discover techniques for teaching student conversation, rules for topic nomination, maintaining a conversation, turn-taking, interruption, and termination.
b. Teaching Pronunciation
Wong in Brown (2001: 284) states:
“Contemporary views (of language) hold that the sounds of language are less crucial for understanding than the way they are organized. The rhythm and intonation of English are two major organizing structures that native speakers rely on to process speech…. Because of their major roles in communication, rhythm, and intonation merit greater priority in the teaching program than attention to individual sound”.

Some factors that affect the learners’ pronunciation are very important point in learning English. Brown (2001: 284) states that factors of learners that affect pronunciation have some variables; those are: (1) Native language: Clearly, the native language is the most influential factor affecting a learner pronunciation; (2) Age: Generally speaking, children under the age of puberty stand an excellent chance of “sound like a native” If they have continued exposure in authentic contexts. Beyond the age of puberty, while adults will almost surely maintain a “foreign accent,” there is no particular advantage attributed to age; (3) Exposure: It is difficult to define exposure. One can actually live in a foreign country for some time but not take advantage of being “with the people”; (4) Innate phonetic ability. Often referred to as having an “ear” for language, some people manifests a phonetic coding ability that others do not. Therefore, if pronunciation seems to be naturally difficult for some learners, they should not despair; with some effort and concentration, they can improve their competence; (5) Identity and language ego: Yet another influence is one’s attitude toward speakers of the target language and the extent to which language ego identifies with those speakers; (6) Motivation and concern for good pronunciation: Some learners are not particularly concerned about their pronunciation, while other are. The extent to which learners’ intrinsic motivation propels them toward improvement will be perhaps the strongest influence of all six of the factors in this list.

c. Accuracy and fluency
An issue that pervades all of language performance centers on the distinction between accuracy and fluency. Brown (2001: 268) states that accuracy is achieved to some extent by allowing learners to focus on the elements of phonology, grammar, and discourse in their spoken language. Fluency is probably best achieved by allowing the stream of speech to flow then as some of this speech spills over beyond comprehensibility, the “riverbanks” of instruction discourse can channel the speech on more purposeful course.
d. Affective factors
The factors are influenced by learners’ emotion. Because of language ego that informs people that “people are what people speak,” learners are reluctant to be judged by hearers. The job of teachers is to provide the kind of warm embracing climate that encourages learners to speak, however halting or broken their attempts may be.
e. The interaction effect
The greatest difficulty that learners encounter in attempts to speak is not the multiplicity of sounds, words, phrases, and discourse form that characterize any language, but rather the interactive nature of communication. Nunan in Brown (2001: 269) states that a further complication in interactive discourse, what he calls interlocutor effect is the difficulty of a speaking task as gauged by the skills of one’s interlocutor. In other words, one learner’s performance is always colored by that of the person (interlocutor) he or she is talking with.
3. Elements of Speaking
There are two speaking elements that the teachers should use in teaching speaking. The ability to speak fluently presupposed not only knowledge of language features, but also the ability to process information and language ‘on the spot’. Therefore, the elements of speaking are divided into two, they are:
a. Language Features
Among the necessary elements for speaking are: (1) Connected speech; the speakers need to be able not only to produce individual phonemes of English but also to use connected speech; (2) Expressive devices: learners are able to deploy at least some of such supra-segmental features and devices in the same way in they are to be fully effective communicator, a native speakers of English change the pitch and stress of particular parts of utterances, vary volume and speed, and show by physical and non-verbal (paralinguistic). It means how they are feeling (especially in face-to-face interaction); (3) Lexis and grammar: spontaneous speech is marked by the use of a number of common lexical phrases, especially in the performance of certain language functions. The teachers’ job is supplying a variety of phrases for different function such as agreeing or disagreeing, expressing surprise, shock, or approval, etc; (4) Negotiation language: effective speaking benefits from the negotiator language people use to seek clarification and to show the structure of what the people are saying. The teacher can use negotiation language in teaching learning process with; learners listen to someone else talking and ask clarification; learners practice the language by given individual card in which one phrase has been writing on them; learners are given language to structure the discourse; give the learners role card and listen to them while the teacher is reading them (Harmer, 1998: 269)
b. Mental or Social Processing
When part of a speaker’s productive ability involves the knowledge of language skills such as those discussed above, success is also dependant upon the rapid processing skills that talking necessitates. The mental or social processing is provided what the effective speaking needs, they are: (1) Language Processing: effective speaking needs to be able to process language in their heads and put it into coherent order so that it comes out in forms that are intended. One of main reasons for including speaking activities in language lesson is to help learners develop habits of rapid language processing in English; (2) Interacting with others: effective speaking also involved a good deal of listening, an understanding of how the other participants are feeling, and knowledge of how linguistically to take turns or allow others to do; (3) Information processing (on-the-spot): effective speaking also needs to be able to process the information from the others when they get it or from response to other’s feeling (Harmer, 1998: 270).
4. Types of spoken language
According to Brown (2001: 251), there are two types of spoken language as follows:
a. Monologue, one speaker uses a spoken language without any interruption. For examples: speeches, lectures, readings, news, broadcasts, and the like. It can be classified into two; (1) planned monologue usually manifest little redundancy, it is relatively difficult to comprehend; (2) unplanned monologue exhibit redundancy, which is made for comprehending, but the presence of more performance variables and other hesitation can either help or hinder comprehension, such as impromptu, lectures, and long stories in conversation.
b. Dialogue involves two more speakers with any interruption or responses and expression. Dialogue is classified in two types: (1) Interpersonal dialogue promotes social relationship in which participant may have a good deal of shared knowledge. Familiar dialogue where familiarity of interlocutors will produce conversations with more assumption, implications, and other meaning hidden between the lines. On the reverse of the statement that in conversations among participants who are unfamiliar with each other, references and meanings have to be made more explicit to assure effective comprehension. (2) Transactional dialogue has the purpose to convey proportional or factual information. In conversation between or among participants who are familiar with each other, in which they will produce conversation in factual information. On the other hand, unfamiliar transactional dialogue is a conversation between or among participants who are unfamiliar with each other, references and meanings have to be made more explicit to assure factual information.
5. Characteristics of Spoken Language
These are some characteristics of spoken language which must be taken into accurate in the productive generation of speech. Brown (2001: 270) states, the characteristics of spoken language can make oral performance easy as well as, in some cases, difficult. Those characteristics are: (1) clustering; it means, fluent speech is phrasal, not word by word, learners can organize their output both cognitively and physically through such clustering (in breath groups); (2) redundancy; the speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clear through the redundancy of language. Learners can capitalize on this feature of spoken language; (3) reduced forms; construction, elisions, reduced vowels, etc., in teaching spoken English. Students who don’t learn colloquial constructions can sometimes develop reality of speaking that in turn stigmatizes them; (4) performance variables; one of the advantages of spoken language is that the process of thinking as someone speak allows someone else to manifest a certain number of performance hesitations, pansies, backtracking, and corrections. Learners can actually be taught how to pause and hesitate; (5) colloquial language; make sure the learners are reasonably well acquainted with the words, idioms, and phrases of colloquial language and that they get practice in producing these forms; (6) rate of delivery; one of one’s tasks in teaching spoken English is to help learners achieve an acceptable speed along with other attributes of fluency; (7) stress, rhythm, and intonation; these are the most important characteristics. The stress-timed rhythm of spoken English and its intonation patterns convey important messages; (8) interaction; learning to produce waves of language in a vacuum-without interlocutors-would rob speaking skill of its richest component: the creativity of conversational negotiation.
6. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance
The types of speaking performance in the classroom are the categories applied to the kinds of oral production that students are expected to carry out in the classroom. According to Brown (2001: 271-274), there are six categories applied in the classroom, those are: (1) imitative is the ability to simply parrot back (imitate) a word or phrase or possibly a sentence. It is carried out not for the purpose of meaningful interaction, but for focusing on some particular element of language form; (2) intensive is the production of short stretches of oral language designed to demonstrate competence in a narrow band of grammatical, phrasal, lexical, and phonological relationship (such as prosodic elements-intonation, stress, rhythm, juncture). Intensive speaking can be self-initiated or it can even form part of some pair work activity, where learners are “going over” certain form of language; (3) responsive is a good deal of student speech in the classroom which include interaction of very short conversations. Short replies to teacher or student-initiated questions or comments are responsive speaking as well. These replies are usually sufficient and do not extend into dialogue; (4) transactional (dialogue) is carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific information, it is an extended form of responsive language; (5) interpersonal (dialogue) is carried out more for purpose of maintaining social relationship than the transmission of fact and information. Transactional and interpersonal can be classified into interactive speaking; (6) extensive speaking (monologue) is giving extended monologue in the form of oral reports, summaries, or perhaps short speeches. The type is usually performed by intermediate to advanced level. These monologues can be planned or impromptu.
7. Macroskills and Microskills in Speaking
Skills in speaking are as consideration designing tasks for assessing spoken language. These skills are also able to act as a checklist of objectives. Brown (2004: 142) states that there are two skills as consideration designing tasks; they are microskills and macroskills of speaking.
a. Microskills in speaking are:
1) Producing chunks of language of different lengths.
2) Orally producing differences among the English phonemes and allophonic variants.
3) Producing English stress pattern, words in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and intonation contours.
4) Producing reduced forms of words and phrases.
5) Using an adequate number of lexical units (words) in order to accomplish pragmatic purposes.
6) Producing fluent speech at different rates of delivery.
7) Monitoring one’s own oral production and use various strategies devices-pauses, filler, self correction; backtracking-to enhances the clarity of the message.
8) Using grammatical word classes (noun, verb, etc.), system (e.g. tense, agreement, pluralization), word order, pattern, rules, and elliptical forms.
9) Producing speech in natural constituents-in appropriate phrases, pause groups, breath groups, and sentences.
10) Expressing a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.
11) Using cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
b. Macroskills in speaking have the appearance of being more complex than mikroskills. Those skills are as follows:
1) Appropriately accomplishing communicative function according to situations, participants, and goals.
2) Using appropriate styles, registers, implicature, redundancies, pragmatic conventions, and conversation rules, floor-keeping and yielding, interrupting, and other sociolinguistic features in face-to-face conversations.
3) Conveying links and connections between events communicate such relations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and feeling, supporting ideas new information and given information, generalization and exemplification.
4) Using facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues along with verbal language to convey meanings.
5) Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing how well one’s interlocutor is understanding other.
8. Classroom Speaking Activities
According to Harmer (2004: 271), many of the classroom speaking activities which are currently in use for learning language teaching can be inferred as follows:
a. Acting from script is classroom speaking activities that provide learners to act out dialogue that learners have written or dialogue from their course-books in front of the class. When choosing who should come out to the front of the class, the teacher needs to be careful not to choose the shyest students first.
b. Communication games are classroom speaking activities that persuade the learners to provoke communication between students frequently depend on information gap, so that one learner has to talk to a partner in order to solve a puzzle, draw a picture (describe and draw), put things in the right order (describe and arrange), or find similarities and differences between pictures.
c. Discussion is classroom speaking activities which support the learners who are reluctant to give an opinion in front of the whole class, particularly if they cannot think of anything to say and are not, any way, confident of the language the might use to say it. One of the best ways to encouraging discussion is to provide activities which force students to reach a decision or a consensus, often a result of choosing between specific alternatives.
d. Prepared talk is a popular kind of activity in classroom speaking activities where student makes a presentation on a topic of their own choice. Such talks are not designed for informal spontaneous conversation, because they are prepared, they are more ‘writing-like’ than a script. However, if possible, learners should speak from notes rather than from a script.
e. Questionnaires are useful classroom speaking activities, because by being pre-planned, they ensure that both questioner and respondent have something to say each other. Thus depend upon how tightly designed they are, they may well encourage the natural use of certain repetitive language patterns, and thus be situated in the middle of our communication continuum. The result obtained from questionnaires couther form the basis for written works discussion or prepared talk.
f. Simulation and role play are classroom speaking activities which learners simulate a real life encounter (such as a business meeting, an encounter in an aero plane cabin, or an interview) as if they were doing so in the real world. Simulation and role play can be used to encourage general oral fluency or to train learners for specific purpose. According to Jones in Harmer (2004: 274), characteristics of simulation and role play are: (1) reality of function, it means the students must not think of themselves as students but as real participant in the situation; (2) a simulation environment, it means classroom is a like real situation, the teacher says that the classroom is an airport check in area, for example; (3) structure, it means learners must see how the activity is constructed and they must given the necessary information to carry out the simulation effectively. Simulation and role play have some advantages, they are: the first place learners can be good fun and those motivating can improve. Second, the learners allow hesitant students to be more forthright in their opinion and behavior than they might be when speaking for themselves, since they do not have to take the same responsibility for what they are saying. Third, by broadening the world of the classroom to include the world outside, they allow students to use a much wider range of language than some more task-centered activities may do.
9. Characteristics of a Successful Speaking Activity
Teaching speaking activity can be called success when some characteristics of successful speaking activity are able to achieve by the learners. According to Ur (1996: 120), those characteristics are: (1) Learners talk a lot, in which learners as much as possible of the period of time are allotted into the activity, it is in fact occupied by learners talk of the target language; (2) Participation is even. It means when the classroom discussion is not dominated by minority talkative participants, all learners get a chance to speak, and the contributions are fairly even distributed; (3) Motivation is high. Learners are eager to speak, because they are interested the topic and have something new to say. In other word they would like to contribute to achieving a task objective; (4) Language is an acceptable level. Learners express themselves in utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensive to each other, and of an acceptable level of language accuracy.
10. Teaching conversation
According to Richards in Brown (2001: 276);
“…two major approaches characterize “current” teaching of conversation, an indirect approach in which learners are more or less loose to engage in interaction, and a direct approach that “involves planning a conversation program around the specific microskills, strategies, and process that are involved in fluent conversation”.

It can be inferred that teaching conversation has two major of approaches, they are indirect approach and direct approach.
a. Indirect approach is somewhat critical of task-based instruction, because the focus is on using language to complete a task, rather than on practicing language. It also implies that one does not actually teach conversation, but rather that learners acquire conversational competence, peripherally, by engaging in meaningful task.
b. Direct approach explicitly calls students’ attention to conversational rules, conventions, and strategies.
11. The Problems with Speaking Activities
In English speaking activity, there are some problems described by Ur (1996: 121). Those are described as follows:
a. Inhabitation; speaking requires some degree of real time exposure to an audience. Students are often inhibited about trying to say things in a foreign language in the classroom. Learners worried about making mistake: fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the attention that their speech attracts.
b. Nothing to say; learners complain that they cannot think anything to say: they have no motive to express themselves beyond the guilty feeling that they should be speaking.
c. Low or uneven participation; only one participant can talk at a time. Some students dominate talking at a time while others speak very little or not at all.
d. Mother-tongue used: a number of the students share the same mother tongue, they may tend to use it because it is easier. They feel unnatural to speak to one another in foreign language. Besides they fell foreign language is quite difficult.
12. Supplements the ideas for solving the problems
Ur (1996: 122) states that some treatments to solve the problem in speaking activity are as supplement ideas. Consider they might do in classroom in order to overcome each of the problems. The teachers may wish to use supplement ideas. Those are:
a. Use group work: group work increase amount of learners talk going on the limited time and also lowers the inhabitation of learners. Because group work provides a chance to learners talk.
b. Base the activity on easy language: the level of language for discussion should be lower than that used in intensive language-learning activities. It should be easily recalled and produced by the students, so that they able to speak fluently with minimum of hesitation.
c. Make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest. The learners will be more motivated by the clearest purposes of the discussion.
d. Give some instructions or training in discussion skills: when the task based on group discussion then include instructions about participation when introducing it; tell the learners to make sure that everyone in the group contributes to the discussion. In other word the students should understand what they must do.
e. Keep learners speaking the target language: when all groups are said and done, the best way to keep students speaking the target language is simply to be there teacher own self as much as possible, reminding students and modeling the language use teacher own self. The way to get it is the teacher might point one of the groups as monitor, whose job is to remind participations to use the target language, and perhaps report later to the teacher how well the group managed to keep speaking target language.
13. Assessment in Teaching Speaking
Ur states that oral testing is:
When testing the oral proficiency of learners we may simply interview them and assess their responses; or use other techniques like role-play, group discussion between learners, monologue, picture description, and so on (1996: 133)

Two key terms on the statement are interview and assess. Interview is teachers making talking directly to the learners to get some responses from the questions. It’s one type of two types in oral testing. Second, assessment on the speaking proficiency through role play, group discussion, monologue, picture description, and so on. Brown (2004: 140) describes more specific types of testing speaking. Testing on speaking is a productive skill that can be directly and empirically observed, those observations are invariably colored by the accuracy, effective and validity of an oral production test. He points out the three important issues as teacher set out to design task in which for assessing or testing speaking; those are: (1) no speaking task is capable of isolating the single skill of oral production. Concurrent involvement of the addition performance of aural comprehension, and possibly reading, is usually necessary; (2) eliciting the specific criterion teachers have designated for task can be tricky because beyond the word level, spoken language offers a number of productive options to test-takers. Make sure your elicitation prompt achieves its aims as closely as possible; (3) because of two characteristics above of oral production assessment, it is important to carefully specify scoring procedures for a response so that ultimately teachers achieve as high a reliability index as possible.
Designing assessment task should be based on types of speaking. Brown (2004: 144-146) states that the categories of oral production assessments are; assessment of imitative speaking; assessment of intensive speaking; assessment of responsive speaking; assessment of interactive speaking; and assessment of extensive speaking.
a. Designing assessments of imitative speaking is assessment to inclusion of simple phonological imitation. An occasional phonologically focused repetition task is warranted as long as repetition tasks are not allowed to occupy a dominate role in an overall oral production assessment. The tasks range from word level to sentence level, usually with each item focusing on a specific phonological criterion. There two types of tasks of assessment in imitative speaking those are test-takers repeat the stimulus and phonepass test. Test-takers repeat the stimulus, whether it is a pair of words, a sentence, or perhaps a question (to test for intonation production). Phonepass tests is a popular that uses imitative test (as well as intensive) production tasks, widely used, commercially available speaking test in many countries. Repetition of sentences of 8 to 12 words occupies a prominent role. Besides the phonepass test elicits computer-assisted oral production over a telephone. Test-takers read aloud, repeat sentences, say words, and answer question. The test has five sections: (1) test-takers read aloud selected sentences from among those printed on test sheet; (2) test-takers repeat sentences dictated over the phone. Example: “leave town on the next train”; test-takers answer question with a single word or a short phrase of two or three words. Example: “would you get water from a bottle or a newspaper”; (4) test-takers hear three word groups in random order and must link them in a correctly ordered sentence. Example: was reading/my mother/a magazine; (5) test-takers have 30 second to talk about their opinion about some topic that is dictated over the phone. Topics center on family, preferences, and choices.
b. Designing assessment tasks of intensive speaking where test-takers are prompted to produce short stretches of discourse (no more than a sentence) through they demonstrate linguistics ability at a specified level of language. Some types in tasks of intensive speaking are directed response task, read-loud tasks, sentence/dialogue completion task and oral questionnaires, picture-cued tasks, and translation (of limited stretches of discourse).
c. Designing assessment tasks of responsive speaking where test-takers tasks involves brief interaction with an interlocutor, differing from intensive tasks in increased creativity given to the test-takers and from interactive tasks by the somewhat limited length of utterances. The types of responsive tasks are question and answer, giving instructions and directions, paraphrasing, and test of spoken language (TSE).
d. Designing assessment tasks of interactive speaking where this assessment includes tasks that involve relatively long stretches of interactive discourse: interview, role plays, discussions, and games. In this category include oral proficiency interview (OPI)
e. In addition tasks equally long duration but that involves less interaction (speeches, telling longer stories, and extended explanation and translations). This category is designing assessment of extensive speaking. It also involves complex, relatively lengthy stretches of discourse. They are frequently variations on monologue, usually with minimal verbal interaction.
14. Operational Definition of Speaking
Speaking ability is the competence of the learners to be able to use English orally by using voice loudly to describe people and things, and to explain the procedure how to make something.
B. General Concept of Jigsaw (Cooperative Learning)
1. The meaning of Cooperative Learning
Oxford (1997: 257) notes that cooperative is involving acting or working together with another or others for common purpose. According to Brown (2001: 47), a cooperative learning is the students and the teacher work together to pursue goals and objective. Richards in accordance with those statements defines that cooperative learning is an approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative activities involving pairs and small groups of students in the classroom (2001: 192). Olsen and Kagan in Richard agree with the definition, they define as follows:
“Cooperative learning is group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in which each learners is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others” (Richards, 2001: 192).

Based on those statements above, it can be inferred that cooperative learning is pairs or small groups of students where they work together to reach the goals of learning. In addition, cooperative is more maximum than competition in learning.
2. The elements of successful cooperative learning
The success of cooperative learning is crucially dependent on the nature and organization of group work. Olsen and Kagan in Richard (2001: 196) propose the key elements of successful group-based learning in cooperative learning as follows:
a. Positive independence occurs when group members feel that what helps one member helps all and what hurts one member hurts all. It is created by the structure of cooperative learning task and by building a spirit of mutual support within the group.
b. Group formation is an important factor in creating positive interdependence. Factors involved in setting up groups include: (1) deciding the size of the group: this will depend on the tasks they have to carry out, the age of the learners, and time limits for the lesson. Typical group size is from two to four; (2) assigning learners to group: group can be teacher-selected, random, or student-selected, although teacher-selected is recommended as the usual mode so as to create groups that are heterogeneous on such variables as post achievement, ethnicity, or sex; (3) learner roles in groups: each group member has a specific role to play in a group, such as noise monitor, turn taker monitor, recorder, or summarizer.
c. Individual accountability involves both group and individual performance, for example, by assigning each learner a grade on his or her portion of team project or by calling on a learner random to share with the whole class, with group members, or with another group.
d. Social skills determine the way of the students to interact with each other as teammates. Usually some explicit instruction in social skills is needed ensure successful interaction.
e. Structuring and structures refer to ways of organizing students’ interaction and different ways of the students to interact such as Round Robin in which each student makes contributions in turn orally.
2. The goals of Cooperative Learning
Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec in Richards (2001: 192) state that cooperative learning sought to do the following goals:
a. Raising the achievement of all students, including those who are gifted or academically handicapped.
b. Helping the teacher build positive relationships among learners
c. Giving learners the experiences they need for healthy social, psychological, and cognitive development
d. Replacing the competitive organizational structure of most classrooms and schools with a team-based, high-performance organizational structure
On the other hand, Richard (2001: 193) states that cooperative learning has been embraced as a way of promoting communicative interaction in the classroom and is seen as an extension of the principles in Communicative Language Teaching. It is viewed as a student-centered approach to teaching held to offer advantages over teacher fronted classroom methods. Cooperative Learning has some goals in language teaching, those goals are as follows:
a. To provide opportunities for naturalistic second language acquisition through the use of interactive pair and group activities.
b. To provide teachers with a methodological and one that can be applied in a variety of curriculum settings.
c. To enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures, and communicative functions through the use of interactive tasks.
d. To provide opportunities for students to develop successful learning and communication strategies
e. To enhance students’ motivation and reduce students’ stress and to create a positive effective classroom climates.
Cooperative Learning provides the students and the teacher to work together for special purposes in which the learning is students-centered; it means all activities make the students’ active in learning. It gives a chance to slow learners to give important thing that they have discussed to share the information. Three concepts of cooperative learning are as follows:
a. Appreciation to the team or group: appreciation is given to the group which able to achieve the goals.
b. Individual responsibilities: it means that the group is able to achieve the result of all members.
c. The same chance to reach the goal in the teaching learning; it means that the students give a better goal on their working.
3. The advantages of cooperative learning
Johnson in Richard states that cooperative learning may be contrasted with competitive learning in which learners work against each other to achieve an academic goals such as a grade of “A” (2001: 195). From the perspective of second language teaching, McGroarty in Richard (2001: 195) offers six learning advantages for ESL in cooperative language learning classrooms, those advantages are as follows:
a. Increased frequency and variety of second language practice through different types of interaction
b. Possibility for development or use of language in ways that support cognitive development and increased language skills
c. Opportunities to integrate language with content-based instruction
d. Opportunities to include a greater variety of curricular material to stimulate language as well as concept learning
e. Freedom for teachers to master new professional skills, particularly those emphasizing communication
f. Opportunities for learners to act as resources for each other, those assuming a more active role in their learning
4. Types of teaching and activities
Johnson et al. in Brown (2001: 196) state that three types of cooperative learning group are as follows:
a. Formal cooperative learning group; these last from one class period to several weeks. These are established for specific task and involve learners working together to achieve shared learning goals.
b. Informal cooperative learning group; these are ad-ho groups that last from a few minutes to a class period and used to focus learner attention or to facilitate learning during direct teaching.
c. Cooperative base group; these are long term, lasting for at least a year and consist of heterogeneous learning groups with stable membership whose primary purpose is to allow members to give each other the support, help, encouragement, and assistance they need to succeed academically.
5. The models of cooperative learning
Nur (2005: 5) states that the models or techniques of cooperative learning are as follows:
a. Students Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD). In this technique the students make a group of four which consider the ability, gender, and nation. The teacher presents the material then groups discuss to make sure that all of the members of group have been understand the materials. Finally each student gets the quiz which other not permits to give helping.
b. Jigsaw, in this technique the students work together in heterogenic team to learn about one topic then they gather in expert group to get information each other then come to main group and give what they got in expert group. Finally they get quiz for group from all materials.
c. Team Games-Tournaments (TGT) Hopkins introduced TGT at first that the technique gives the students materials from presentation teacher like STAD but in final step not using quiz but using tournaments.
d. Team Accelerated Instruction (TAI) or Team assisted Individualization. This technique combines cooperative learning and individual, in which the students get a placement test then the students come forward depend on accelerated themselves. The students check other students’ answer and help each other to solve the problems. Finally the students get a test without helping from their friend and every week the teacher account the score of each group and the group which has the highest score will get the certificate or reward.
e. Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC), this technique is a program for comprehension reading and writing. The teacher teach reading like traditional but the students placed in pairs and read different topic which work with partner read each other. At last the students are proposed able to create a book for themselves.
6. The major kinds of Cooperative Learning Tasks
Coelho in Richards (2001: 197) states that three major kinds of cooperative learning tasks and their learning focus are as follows:
a. Team practice from common input-skills development and mastery of fact. In addition the learning focuses are as follows: (1) All learners work on the same material; (2) Practice could follow a traditional teacher-directed presentation of new material and for that reason is a good starting point for teachers and learners now to group work; (3) The task is to make sure that everyone in the group knows the answer to the question and can explain how the answer was obtained or understands the material; (4) When teacher takes up the question or assignment, anyone in a group may be called on to answer for the team; (5) This technique is good for review and for practice tests; the group takes the practice test together, but each student will eventually do an assignment or take a rest individually; and (6) This technique is effective in situations where the composition of the groups is unstable. Learners can form new groups every day. It is suitable in adult programs, for example.
b. Jigsaw: differentiated but predetermined input-evaluation and synthesis of facts and opinions. The learning focuses are: (1) Learners regroup in topic groups (expert group) composed of people with the same piece to master the material and prepare to teach it; (2) Learners return to home groups (Jigsaw group) to share their information with each other; (3) Learners synthesize the information through discussion; (4) Each learner produces an assignment of part of a group project, or takes a test, to demonstrate synthesis of all the information presented by all group members; (5) This method of organization may require team-building activities for both home groups and topic group involvement, and rehearsal of presentation methods; (6) This method very useful in the multilevel class, allowing for both homogeneous grouping in terms of English proficiency; and (7) Information-gap activities in language teaching are jigsaw activities in the form of pair work. Partners have data with missing information to be supplied during interaction with another partner.
c. Cooperative project: topics/resources selected by learners-discovery learning. The learning focuses are: (1) Topics may be different for each group; (2) Learners identify subtopics for each group member; (3) Steering committee may coordinate the work of the class as a whole; (4) Learners research the information using resources such as library reference, interview, and visual media; (5) Students synthesize their information for a group presentation: oral and/or written. Each group presents to the whole class; (6) the method places greater emphasis on individualization and students’ interests. Each student’s unique; and (7) Students need plenty of previous experience with more structured group work for this to be effective.
7. The Jigsaw Method in Cooperative Learning
The jigsaw is a cooperative learning technique with a three-decade track record of successfully reducing racial conflict and increasing positive educational outcomes. Just as in a jigsaw puzzle, each piece--each student's part--is essential for the completion and full understanding of the final product. If each learner's part is essential, then each student is essential; and that is precisely what makes this strategy so effective. Jigsaw technique is participating in the following group learning activities, those are as follows:
a. Speaking - students will be responsible for taking the knowledge gained from one group and repeating it to new listeners in their original groups.
b. Cooperation - all members of a group are responsible for the success of others in the group.
c. Reflective thinking - to successfully complete the activity in the original group, there must be reflective thinking at several levels about what was learned in the expert group.
d. Creative thinking - Groups must devise new ways of approaching, teaching and presenting material (http://www.jigsaw.org)
8. Directions for the jigsaw strategy are given below:
a. Define the group project on which the class will be working.
b. Randomly break the class into groups of 4-5 learners each, depending on the size of the class, and assign a number (1 to 4-5) to learners in each group.
c. Assign each student/number a topic in which he/she will become an expert.
d. The topics could be related facets of a general content theme.
e. Rearrange the learners into expert groups based on their assigned numbers and topics.
f. Provide the experts with the materials and resources necessary to learn about their topics.
g. The experts should be given the opportunity to obtain knowledge through reading, research and discussion.
h. Reassemble the original groups.
i. Experts then teach what they have learned to the rest of the group.
j. Take turns until all experts have presented their new material.
k. Groups present results to the entire class, or they may participate in some assessment activity (http://www.jigsaw.org)
l.
9. Process for designing expert group in jigsaw
a. Assign Topics - The learning unit is divided into four topics and each learner on the team is assigned one topic. For teams of five, two students are assigned one topic and instructed to work together. For three member teams, only three topics are assigned and the members learn the fourth from another team.
b. Expert Groups Meet - all Topic 1 learners meet in one area, Topic 2 learners in another area, Topic 3 learners and Topic 4 learners. If eight teams exist in the classroom, two groups of each topic may be formed to reduce the size of the expert groups. A balance of achievement levels may have advantages for topic groups.
c. Experts Consult - Experts consult and discuss their topic, making certain each group member understands the information. A variety of strategies for checking for understanding can be used. For example, work sheets, cross group interviews, dialogue etc.
d. Experts Create and Practice a Teaching Plan - Expert groups design and practice a plan for teaching their expertise to team members.
e. Experts Return to Teams to Share and Tutor - Experts take turns sharing their individual topic expertise with team members.
f. Demonstration of Knowledge - The culminating activity allows individual team members to demonstrate their knowledge of all topics identified in the unit (http://www.jigsaw.org)
10. The problem with jigsaw method
a. The Problem of the Dominant learner
Many jigsaw teachers find it useful to appoint one of the learners to be the discussion leader for each session, on a rotating basis. It is the leader's job to call on learners in a fair manner and try to spread participation evenly. In addition, learners quickly realize that the group runs more effectively if each student is allowed to present her or his material before question and comments are taken. The self interest of the group eventually reduces the problem of dominance.
b. The Problem of the slow learner
Teachers must make sure that learner with poor study skills do not present an inferior report to the jigsaw group. If this were to happen, the jigsaw experience might backfire (the situation would be akin to the untalented baseball player dropping a routine fly ball with the bases loaded, earning the wrath of teammates). To deal with this problem, the jigsaw technique relies on "expert" groups. Before presenting a report to their jigsaw groups, each learner enters an expert group consisting of other learners who have prepared a report on the same topic. In the expert group, learners have a chance to discuss their report and modify it based on the suggestions of other members of their expert group. This system works very well. In the early stages, teachers may want to monitor the expert groups carefully, just to make sure that each learner ends with an accurate report to bring to her or his jigsaw group. Most teachers find that once the expert groups get the hang of it, close monitoring becomes unnecessary.

c. The Problem of Bright learners Becoming Bored
Boredom can be a problem in any classroom, regardless of the learning technique being used. Research suggests, however, that there is less boredom in jigsaw classrooms than in traditional classrooms. Youngsters in jigsaw classes report liking school better, and this is true for the bright learners as well as the slower learners. After all, being in the position of a teacher can be an exciting change of pace for all learners. If bright learners are encouraged to develop the mind set of "teacher," the learning experience can be transformed from a boring task into an exciting challenge. Not only does such a challenge produce psychological benefits, but the learning is frequently more thorough.
d. The Problem of Students Who Have Been Trained to Compete
Research suggests that jigsaw has its strongest effect if introduced in elementary school. When children have been exposed to jigsaw in their early years, little more than a "booster shot" (one hour per day) of jigsaw in middle school and high school is required to maintain the benefits of cooperative learning. What if jigsaw has not been used in elementary school? Admittedly, it is an uphill battle to introduce cooperative learning to 16-year olds who have never before experienced it. Old habits are not easy to break. But they can be broken, and it is never too late to begin. Experience has shown that although it generally takes a bit longer, most high school learners participating in jigsaw for the first time display a remarkable ability to benefit from the cooperative structure (http://www.jigsaw.org)

11. Jigsaw in 10 Easy Steps
The jigsaw classroom is very simple to use. If you're a teacher, just follow these steps:
a. Divide students into 5- or 6-person jigsaw groups. The groups should be diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity, race, and ability.
b. Appoint one student from each group as the leader. Initially, this person should be the most mature student in the group.
c. Divide the day's lesson into 5-6 segments. For example, if you want history learners to learn about Eleanor Roosevelt, you might divide a short biography of her into stand-alone segments on: (1) Her childhood, (2) Her family life with Franklin and their children, (3) Her life after Franklin contracted polio, (4) Her work in the White House as First Lady, and (5) Her life and work after Franklin's death.
d. Assign each learner to learn one segment, making sure learners have direct access only to their own segment.
e. Give learners time to read over their segment at least twice and become familiar with it. There is no need for them to memorize it.
f. Form temporary "expert groups" by having one student from each jigsaw group join other students assigned to the same segment. Give learners in these expert groups time to discuss the main points of their segment and to rehearse the presentations they will make to their jigsaw group.
g. Bring the learners back into their jigsaw groups.
h. Ask each learner to present her or his segment to the group. Encourage others in the group to ask questions for clarification.
i. Float from group to group, observing the process. If any group is having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), make an appropriate intervention. Eventually, it's best for the group leader to handle this task. Leaders can be trained by whispering an instruction on how to intervene, until the leader gets the hang of it.
j. At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material so that learners quickly come to realize that these sessions are not just fun and games but really count (http://www.jigsaw.org)
C. General Concept of Audio Lingual Method
1. The nature of Audio-Lingual Method
The Audio-lingual method is the product of three historical circumstances. For its views on language, audiolingualism drew on the work of American linguists such as Bloomfield. The prime concern of American Linguistics at the early decades of the 20th century had been to document all the indigenous languages spoken in the USA. However, because of the death of trained native teachers who would provide a theoretical description of the native languages, linguists had to rely on observation. For the same reason, a strong focus on oral language was developed. At the same time, behaviorist psychologists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that all behavior (including language) was learnt through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement. The third factor that enabled the birth of the Audio-lingual method was the outbreak of World War II, which created the need to post large number of American servicemen all over the world. It was therefore necessary to provide these soldiers with at least basic verbal communication skills.
In the World War II broke out, Americans were able to achieve orally proficient in the languages of both their allies and their enemies (Brown, 2001: 22). The US military provided the impetus with funding for special, intensive language courses that focused on aural/oral skills; these courses came to be known as the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) or, more colloquially, the “Army Method”.
The Audio-Lingual Method or the Army Method owed its existence to the Behaviorist models of teaching which uses stimulus-response-reinforcement models, it attempted, through a continuous process of such positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners (Harmer, 2004: 79). It is based on behaviorist ideology, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback. The lessons are built on static drills in which the learners have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing that will result in a student receiving negative feedback. This theory is introduced by Chomsky, so that behaviorism method is also called a Chomsky’s theory.
2. The characteristics of Audio Lingual Method
The characteristics of Audio Lingual Method were a great deal of oral activity-pronunciation and pattern drills and conversation practice-with virtually none of grammar and translation found in traditional classes (Brown, 2001: 22). Prator and Murcia in Brown summed up in the following lists of the characteristics of audio-lingual method:
a. new material is presented in dialogue form
b. there is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and over learning
c. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.
d. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.
e. There is a little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than by deductive explanation.
f. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
g. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aid.
h. Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
i. Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.
j. Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
k. There is great effort to get learners to produce error-free utterances.
l. There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.
3. Approach
According to Richards (2001: 54-58), there are two concepts in language teaching through audio-lingual method: theory of language and theory of learning.
a. Theory of language underlying Audiolingualism was derived from view proposed by American linguist in the 1950s-a view that came to be known as structural linguistics. Structural linguistics has developed in part as a reaction to traditional grammar. The term structural referred to these characteristic are: (a) elements in language were thought of as being linearly produced in a rule-governed (structured) way; (b) language samples could be exhaustively described at any structural level of description (phonetic, phonemic, morphological, etc.); (c) linguistic levels were thought of as systems within systems-that is, as being pyramidally structured; phonemic systems led to morphemic systems, and these in turn led to higher-level systems of phrases, clauses, and sentences.
b. Theory of learning, in this nature of language learning includes; an account of the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involve in language learning; and an account of the conditions that allow for successful use of these processes (Richard, 2001: 33). In audio-lingual method, Skinner and Brown in Richard state that occurrence of these behaviors is dependent on three crucial elements in learning: (1) stimulus, which serves to elicit behavior; (2) a response, triggered by a stimulus; (3) reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future (Richard, 2001: 56). Reinforcement is a vital element in the learning process, because it increase the likelihood that behavior will occur again and eventually become a habit.
Rivers in Richards (2001: 56-57) states a number of learning principles which became the psychological foundations of audiolingualism and came to shape its methodological practices. Among the more central principles are as follows:
1) Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation. Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather than by making mistakes. By memorizing dialogues and performing pattern drills the chances of producing mistakes are minimized. Language is verbal behavior-that is, the automatic production and comprehension of utterances-and can be learned by inducing the learners to do likewise.
2) Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form. Aural-oral training is needed to provide the foundation for the development of other language skills.
3) Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Analogy involves the processes of generalization and discrimination. Explanations of rulers are therefore not given until learners have practiced a pattern in a variety of contexts and are thought to have acquired a perception of the analogies. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.
4) The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation. Teaching a language thus involves teaching aspects of the cultural system of the people who speak the language.
4. Design of Audio-lingual Method
a. Objectives
Brooks in Richards (2001: 58) distinguishes between short-range and long-range objectives of an audio-lingual method program. Short-range objectives include training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols as graphic signs on the printed page, and ability to reproduce these symbols in writing. Brooks points out three other immediate objectives: first, control of the structures of sound, form, and order in the new language; second, acquaintance with vocabulary items that bring content into these structures; and third, meaning, in terms of the significance these verbal symbols have for those who speak the language natively. Long-range objectives must be language as the native speakers uses it. There must be some knowledge of a second language as it is possessed by a true bilingualist.
b. Teaching activities
The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the Audio-lingual Method. Various kinds of drills are used. Brooks in Richards (2001: 60-62) states the various kinds of drills are as follows:
1) Repetition: The learner repeats an utterance aloud as soon as he has heard it. He does this without looking at a printed text. The utter¬ance must be brief enough to be retained by the ear. Sound is as important as form and order.
2) Inflection; one word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated.
3) Replacement; one word in an utterance is replaced by another.
4) Restatement; the learner rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone else, according to instructions.
5) Completion; the learner hears an utterance that is complete except for one word, and then repeats the utterance in completed form.
6) Transposition; a change in word order is necessary when a word is added.
7) Expansion; when a word is added it takes a certain place in the sequence.
8) Contraction; a single word stands for a phrase or clause.
9) Transformation; a sentence is transformed by being made negative or interrogative or through changes in tense.
10) Integration; two separate utterances are integrated into one.
11) Rejoinder (Question-and-answer Drill); this drill gives learner’s practice with answering questions. The learners should answer the teacher's questions very quickly. Although we did not see it in our lesson here, it is also possible for the teacher to cue the learners to ask questions as well. This gives learners prac¬tice with the question pattern.
12) Chain Drill; a chain drill gets its name from the chain of conversation that is formed around the room as learners, one-by-one, ask and answer questions of each other. The teacher begins the chain by greeting a particular student, or asking him a question. That student responds, and then turns to the learner sitting next to him. The first learner greets or asks a question of the second student and the chain continues. A chain drill allows some controlled communication, even though it is limited. A chain drill also gives the teacher an opportunity to check each learner’s speech.
13) Single-slot Substitution Drill; the teacher says a line, usually from the dialog. Next, the teacher says a word or a phrase-called the cue. The learners repeat the line the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. The major purpose of this drill is to give the learners practice in finding and filling in the slots of a sentence.
14) Multiple-slot Substitution Drill; this drill is similar to the single-slot substitution drill. The difference is that the teacher gives cue phrases, one at a time, which fit into different slots in the dialog line. The learners must recognize what part of speech each cue is, where it fits into the sentence, and make any other changes, such as subject-verb agreement. They then say the line, fitting the cue phrase into the line where it belongs.
c. Learners roles
Richards (2001: 63) states that learners are viewed as organisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responses. In accordance with behaviorist learning theory, teaching focuses on the external manifestations of learning rather than on the internal processes. Learners play a reactive role by responding to stimuli, and those have little control over the content, pace, or style of learning.
d. Teacher role
The teacher’s role is central and active; it is a teacher-dominated method. The teacher models the target language, controls the direction and pace of learning, and monitors and corrects the learners’ performance. The teacher has to keep the learners attentive by varying drills and tasks and choosing relevant situations to practice structure. Brooks in Richards (2001: 63) argues that the teacher must be trained to do the following:
1) Introduce, sustain and harmonize the learning of the four skills in this order: hearing speaking, reading and writing.
2) Use English in the language classroom
3) Model the various types of language behavior that the learner is to learn.
4) Teach spoken language in dialogue form.
5) Direct choral response by all or parts of the class.
6) Teach the use of structure through pattern practice.
7) Guide the learners in choosing and learning vocabulary.
8) Show how words relate to meaning in the target language.
9) Get the individual learner to talk
10) Reward trials by the leaner in such a way that learning is reinforced.
11) Establish and maintain a cultural island
12) Formalize on the first day the rules according to which the language class is to be conducted, and enforce them.
d. The role of instructional materials
Instructional materials in audio-lingual method assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner. They are primarily teacher oriented. A learner textbook is often not used in the elementary or beginning level where learners are primarily listening, repeating, and responding. At this stage in learning, exposure to the printed word may not be considerable desirable, because it distracts attention from the aural input. When textbooks and printed material are introduced to the learner, they provide the texts of dialogues and cues needed for drills and exercises (Richard, 2001: 63). In addition, tape recorders and audiovisual equipment often have central roles in audio-lingual. If the teacher is not a native speaker of the target language, the tape recorder provides accurate models for dialogues and drills. A laboratory may also be considered essential. It provides the opportunity for further drill work and to receive controlled error-free practice of basic structure (Richards, 2001: 63)
5. Procedure
The process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction because audio-lingual method is primarily an oral approach to language teaching. Richards (2001: 64) states that since Audiolingualism is primarily an oral approach to language teach¬ing, it is not surprising that the process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction. The focus of instruction is on immediate and accurate speech; there is little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the language. As far as possible, the target language is used as the medium of instruction, and translation or use of the native language is discouraged. Classes of ten or fewer are considered optimal, although larger classes are often the norm. Brooks in Richards (2001: 64) lists the following procedures that the teacher should adopt in using the Audio-lingual Method, those are as follows:
a. The modeling of learning by the teacher.
b. The subordination of the mother tongue to the second language by rendering English inactive while the new language is being learned.
c. The early and continued training of the ear and tongue without recourse to Graphic symbols.
d. The learning of structure-through the practice of patterns of sound, order, and Form, rather than by explanation.
e. The gradual substitutions of graphic symbols for sounds after sounds are thor-oughly known.
f. The summarizing of the main principles of structure for the student's use when the structures are already familiar, especially when they differ from those of the mother tongue....
g. The shortening of the time span between a performance and the pronounce-ment of its rightness or wrongness, without interrupting the response. This enhances the factor of reinforcement in learning.
h. The minimizing of vocabulary until all common structures has been learned.
i. The study of vocabulary only in context.
j. Sustained practice in the use of the language only in the molecular form of speaker-hearer-situation.
k. Practice in translation only as a literary exercise at an advanced level.
D. General Concept of Motivation
1. The Definition of Motivation
Brown (2001: 72) notes that motivation is drawn from a number of different sources: motivation is the extent to which the teacher makes choices about (a) goals to pursue and (b) the effort the teacher will devote to that pursuit. Brown (2001: 73) states theories of motivation in terms of two opposing camps; they are traditional view of motivation that accounts for human behavior through a behaviorist paradigm that stresses the importance of rewards and reinforcement. On the other side, it’s a number of cognitive psychological viewpoints that explain motivation through deeper, less observable phenomena. Cognitive are a number of cognitive psychological viewpoints offering quite a different perspective on motivation. Three different theories illustrated this side motivation as follows:
a. Drive theory seeing human drives as fundamental to human behavior claim that motivation stems from basic innate drives. Ausubel in Brown (2001:73) elaborates on six different drives: (1) exploration, (2) manipulation, (3) activity, (4) stimulation, (5) knowledge, and (6) ego enhancement.
b. Hierarchy of needs theory. Maslow in Brown (2001:73), in the spirit of drive theory, elaborates further to describe a system of needs within each human being that proper us to higher and higher attainment.
Figure of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in Brown (2001: 74)

The important key here is that people are not adequately energized pursue some of the higher needs until the lower foundations of pyramid have been satisfied. If they fulfill lower-order needs, they can pave the way to meet higher order needs.
c. Self-control theory. This theory define that motivation is highest when one can make one’s own choices, whether they are in short-term or long-term context. In the classroom, students have opportunities to make their own choices about what to pursue and what not to pursue, as in a cooperative learning context.
Harmer defines motivation as some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something (2004: 51). William and Burden in Harmer (2004: 51) suggest that motivation is a state of cognitive arousal which provokes a decision to act as a result of which there is sustained intellectual and/or physical effort so that the person can achieve some previous set goal. They go on to point out that the strength of that motivation will depend on how much value the individual places on the outcome he or she wishes to achieve. Ur in accordance with Brown states that motivation is one who willing or even eager to invest effort in learning activities and to progress Student’s motivation makes teaching and learning immeasurably easier and more pleasant, as well as more productive: hence the importance of the topic for teachers.
2. The types of motivation
Two kinds of motivations are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Brown (2001: 75) states that two types of motivation, those are as follows:
a. Intrinsic motivation in education Motivation moves to specifying further what the intrinsic, Deci in Brown (2001: 76) defines intrinsic motivation as follows:
Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except the activity itself. People seem to engage in the activities for their own sake and not because they lead to an extrinsic reward. …. Intrinsically motivated, behaviors are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely feeling of competence and self determination.

Intrinsic motivation comes from within individual. Thus, a person might be motivated by the enjoyment of the learning process itself or by a desire to make they feel better (Harmer, 2004: 51). Ur (1996: 280) defines intrinsic motivation as a global intrinsic motivation-the generalized desire to invest effort in the learning for its own sake-is largely rooted in the previous attitudes of the learners. Ur (1996: 281) offers some ways of interest in tasks, because for real time classroom learning more significant factor is whether the task in hand is seen as interesting, it is in the arousing of interest, perhaps, that teachers invest most effort, and get most immediate and noticeable pay-off in term of student motivation, those are: (1) clear goal, learners should be aware of objectives of the task-both language learning and content. For example, a guessing-game may have the language-learning goal of practicing questions, and guessing answers; (2) varied topics and tasks, topics and tasks should be selected carefully to be as interesting as possible: but few single types can interest everyone, so there should be a wide range of different ones over time; (3) visuals, it is important for learners to have something to look at that is eye-catching and relevant to the task in hand; (4) tension and challenge: games, game-like activities provide pleasurable tension and challenge through the process of attaining some fun goals while limited by rules. The introduction of such rules (an arbitrary time limit, for example) can add spice to almost any goal-oriented task; (5) entertainment; entertainment produces enjoyment, which in its turn adds motivation. Entertainment can be teacher-produced (jokes, stories, perhaps song, dramatic presentations) or recorded (movies, video clips, television documentaries); (6) play-acting, role play and simulation that use the imagination and take learners out of themselves can be excellent: though some people are inhibited and may find such activities intimidating at first; (7) information gap, a particularly interesting type of task is that is based on the need to understand or transmit information-finding out of what is in a partner’s picture, for example, a variation on this is the opinion gap where participants exchange views on given issue; (8) personalization; learners are more likely to be interested in tasks that have to do with themselves; their own or each other’s opinions, tastes, experiences, and suggestions; (9) open-ended cues; a cue which invites a number of possible responses is usually much more stimulating than one with only one right answer: participants’ contributions are unpredictable, and are more likely to be interesting, original or humorous.
b. Extrinsically motivated behaviors: typical extrinsic rewards are money, prizes, grades, and even certain type of positive feedback. Maslow in Brown (2001: 76) claims that intrinsic is clearly superior to extrinsic. According to hierarchy of needs, people are ultimately motivated to achieve ‘self actualization’ once the basic physical, safety, and community needs are met. Ur (1996: 277) states that extrinsic motivation is that which derives from the influence of some kind of external incentive, as distinct from the wish to learn for its own sake or interest in task. He points out that source which influenced external motivation is the influence of the teacher. The sources are certainly affected by teacher action: some of them are: (1) success and its reward, this is perhaps the single most important feature in raising extrinsic motivation. Students who have succeeded in tasks will be more willing to engage with the next one, more confident in their chances of succeeding, and more likely to persevere in their efforts; (2) failure and its penalties. Failure is not just a matter of wrong answers; learners should be aware that they are fail if they have done significantly less than they could have, if they are making unsatisfactory progress or not taking care. Failure in any sense is generally regarded as something to be avoided, just as success is something to be sought in principle part of the teacher’s job to make learners aware of their failing; (3) authoritative demands, learners are often motivated by teacher’ pressure: they may be willing to invest effort in tasks simply because teachers have told them to recognize teachers’ authority and right to make this demand, and trust teachers’ judgment; (4) test, the motivating power of tests appears clear: Students who know they are going to be tested on specific material next week will normally be more motivated to study it carefully than if they had simply been told to learn it; (5) competition, learners will often be motivated to give of their best not for the sake of the learning itself but in order to beat their opponents in a competition. The competition is taken not too seriously, and if scores are at least partly a result of chance, so that anyone might win, positive motivational aspects are enhanced and stress lowered. Group contents tend on the whole to get better result than individual one.
3. Characteristics of motivated learners.
Naiman et al. in Ur (1996: 275) comes to the conclusion that the most successful learners are not necessarily those to whom a language comes very easily; they are those who display certain typical characteristics, most of them clearly associated with motivation, those are as follows:
a. Positive task orientation. The learner is willing to tackle tasks and challenges, and has confidence in his or her success.
b. Ego-involvement. The learner finds it important to succeed in learning in order to maintain and promote his or her own (positive) self-image.
c. Need for achievement. The learner has a need to achieve, to overcome difficulties and succeed in what he or she sets out to do.
d. High aspiration. The learner is ambitious, goes for demanding challenges, high proficiency, top grades.
e. Goal orientation. The learner is very aware of the goals of learning, or of specific learning activities, and directs his or her effort towards achieving them.
f. Perseverance. The learner consistently invests a high level of effort in learning, and is not discouraged by setbacks or apparent lack of progress.
g. Tolerance of ambiguity. The learner is not disturbed or frustrated by situations involving a temporary lack of understanding will come later.
4. Sources of motivation
The motivation that brings learners to the task of learning English can be affected and influenced by the attitude of a number of people. It is worth considering what and who these are since they form part of the world around students’ feeling and engagement with the learning process (Harmer, 2004: 51). He points out some sources of motivation, as follows:
a. The society learners live in: outside any classroom there are attitudes to language learning and the English language in particular. All views of language learning will affect the learner’s attitude to the language being studied, and the nature and strength of this attitude will, in its turn, have a profound effect on the degree of motivation the learner brings to class and whether or not that motivation continues.
b. Significant others: apart from the culture of the world around learners, their attitude to language learning will be greatly affected by the influence of people who are close to them. The attitude of parents and other siblings will be crucial. The attitude of a learner’s peers is also crucial. If they are critical of the subject or activity, the learner’s own motivation may suffer. If they are enthusiastic learners, however, they may take the student along with them.
c. The teacher: clearly a major factor in the continuance of a learner’s motivation is the teacher. It is worth pointing out that his or her attitude to the language and the task of learning will be vital. An obvious enthusiasm for English and English learning, in this case, would seem to be prerequisites for a positive classroom atmosphere.
d. The method: it is vital that both teacher and learners have some confidence in the way teaching and learning take place. When either loses this confidence, motivation can be disastrously affected, but when both are comfortable with the method being used, success is much more likely
5. Operational Definition of Motivation
Motivation is human behavior through, basic innate drives, a system of needs, and one can make one’s own choices to invest the effort in pursuit the goals of teaching-learning English.
E. General concepts of beginner
Brown (2001: 96) states that hardly a teaching day goes by in this profession without someone referring to learners’ proficiency levels with the term “beginning level,” “intermediate or advanced”. The beginning level is sorted of primary and elementary that the students got little or not prior knowledge of the target language. The students have little language behind them. A teaching will have to resort to good deal of talking about second language in the students’ native language. Brown (2001: 98) states that to formulate an approach to teaching beginners there are ten factors to help the teachers to do it. Those factors are as follows:
a. Learners’ cognitive learning processes; all of the learners’ processing with respect to the second language itself is in a focal, controlled mode. Even in the first few days of class, however, teacher can coax learners into some peripheral processing by getting them to use practiced language for getting genuinely meaningful purposes. For example, getting information from a classmate whom a learner does not know will require using newly learned language, but with a focus on purposes to which the language is put, not on the form of language.
b. The role of the teacher: beginning learners are highly dependent on the teacher for model of language, and so a teacher-centered classroom is appropriate for some of teacher’s classroom time. Learners are able to initiate few questions and comments, so it is teacher’s responsibility to keep the ball rolling. Still, teacher’s beginning level classes need not be devoid of modicum of student-centered work. Pair work and group work are effective techniques for taking learners’ focus off teacher as the center of attention and for getting them into an interactive frame of mind even at the most beginning level.
c. Teacher talk: teacher’s input in the class is crucial. Every ear and eye is indeed focused on teacher. Teacher’s own English needs to be clearly articulated. It is appropriate to show teacher’s speech somewhat for easier learner comprehension, but don’t need to talk any louder to beginners than to advanced learners if teacher’s articulation is clear. Use simple vocabulary and structures that are at or just slightly beyond their level.
d. Authenticity of language: the language that teacher expose learners to should, according to principles of CLT (Communicative Language Teaching), be authentic language, not just because learners are beginners. Simple greeting and introductions, for example, are authentic and yet manageable.
e. Fluency and accuracy: fluency is a goal at this level but only within limited utterance lengths. Fluency does not have to apply only to long utterances. The flow of language is important to establish, from the beginning, in reasonably short segments. Attention to accuracy should center on the particular grammatical, phonological, or discourse elements that are being practiced. In teaching speaking skills, it is extremely important at this stage that teacher be very sensitive to learners’ need to practice freely and openly without fear of being corrected at every minor flaw.
f. Learner creativity: the ultimate goal of learning a language is to be able to comprehend and produce it in unprepared situation, which demands both receptive-and productive creativity. But at the beginning level, learners can be creative only within the confines of highly controlled repertoire language. Innovation will come later when learners get more language under their control.
g. Technique: short, simple technique must be used. Some mechanical techniques are appropriate-choral repetition and other drilling, for example. A good many teacher-initiated questions dominate at this level, followed only after some an increase in simple learner-initiated questions. Group and pair activities are the excellent techniques as long as they are structured and clearly defined with specific objectives. A variety of techniques is important because of limited language capacity.
h. Listening and speaking goals: listening and speaking functions are meaningful and authentic communication tasks. They are limited more by grammar, vocabulary, and length of utterance than by communication function.
i. Reading and writing goals: reading and writing topics are confined to brief but nevertheless real-life written material. Advertisements, forms, and recipes are grist for the beginner’s reading mill, while written work may involve forms, lists, simple notes, and letters.
j. Grammar: whether a curriculum or textbook is billed as functional, communicative, structural, or whatever, grammar sequencing is an issue. As the charts show, a typical beginning level will deal at the outset with very simple verb forms, personal pronouns, definite and indefinite articles, singular and plural nouns, and simple sentences, in a progression of grammatical topics from simple to complex.
F. Rationale
There are two variables; they are dependent variable and independent variable. Dependent variable is speaking ability, and independent variable is jigsaw technique in cooperative learning, static drills technique in audio-lingual method, and motivation (low and high). Speaking ability is the competence of the learners to be able to use the rule of speaking, to introduce their own selves and someone to someone else, to describe people, place and things, to explain the procedure how to make something, able to express and give response to different types of speech acts such as requests, apologies, thanks, and commands orally by using voice loudly. In teaching speaking activities to beginners, speaking should be meaningful and authentic. To accomplish those functions teaching-learning process should provide the materials in meaningful and authentic with good technique. The technique which provides them is jigsaw in cooperative learning. They are not only able to learn from the teacher but also from their friends. They also have the same chance to reach the goals in teaching-learning. They cannot find the situation in static drills in audio-lingual method, because in this approach learners are not active, but they just repeat what the teacher says. Besides, teaching-learning process is teacher-centered which teacher is active during the process and the learners just become object of the learning. It can be assumed that jigsaw technique is more effective than static drills technique in teaching speaking to beginners.
The learners have different motivation in studying English. Some learners have low motivation and the other have high motivation. When the students have high motivation, they are suitable taught by using jigsaw in cooperative learning, because it provides some opportunities to the students to make their own choices, it also provides some opportunities to the learners to develop their own capacities of the mind. They can solve some problems themselves by discussing in group, they make positive interdependent to do it. They can not do it in static drills, because they do not make what they want to do, they must repeat and repeat what the teacher says. They will be boring with the situations. It can be assumed that jigsaw technique is more effective than static drills technique in teaching speaking to learners who have high motivation.
The learners who have low motivation are suitable taught by using static drills in audio-lingual method, because they are corrected directly when they make mistakes. They will not fail because of directly corrected. They will construct the knowledge, although they are in strength situations. Besides, they must be required to learn, because without the power they will not learn anymore. They are less effective taught by using jigsaw technique, because in the technique the learners are given optional to learn. It can be assumed that static drills technique is more effective than jigsaw technique in teaching speaking to learners who have low motivation.
Students who have high motivation are more effective taught by using jigsaw than taught by using static drill, but students who have low motivation are more effective taught by using static drills technique than taught by using jigsaw technique. It can be assumed that there is an interaction between technique and motivation in teaching speaking to beginners.
G. Hypothesis
Based on the theory and the rationale, hypothesis can be stated as follows:
1. Jigsaw technique in cooperative learning is more effective than static drills in audio-lingual method in teaching speaking to beginners.
2. Jigsaw technique in cooperative learning is more effective than static drills in audio-lingual method for teaching learners who have high motivation.
3. Static drills in audio-lingual method are more effective than jigsaw technique in cooperative learning in teaching speaking to learners who have low motivation.
4. There is an interaction between technique and motivation in teaching speaking to beginner.

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